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 Iran
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History and Government
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Iran History and Government
History: The name Iran is derived from the Aryan tribes
who took control of Persia around 1600 BC. In 550 BC Cyrus the Great seized
the throne of one of the dominant tribes, the Medes, from which he established
an empire covering Babylonia, Syria and Asia Minor and, later on, Thrace,
Macedonia and Egypt. Cyrus’ empire was conquered in the latter part
of the fourth century BC by the Greek general Alexander the Great, and
then overrun by the Parthians in the early third century BC. They in turn
were supplanted by Ardashir, founder of the Sassanian empire in the early
third century AD. Four hundred years later, in AD 640, Persia was conquered
by the Arabs, who established the Islamic religion in the region.
After a brief occupation by the Turks, Persia was taken over by the Mongols
and then, in the 1380s, by Timur, better known as Tamerlane, the Mongol
leader of an empire centred in modern-day Uzbekistan. Timur also conquered
Azerbaijan and parts of Iraq, Syria and Turkey before his death during
an invasion of China at the turn of the 15th century. Violent disorder
consumed the country for the next 100 years until the first of the Safavid
dynasty took control at the beginning of the 16th century. Their rule
lasted until the beginning of the 18th century; Ardir Shah, a legendary
figure in Iranian history, then ruled for 20 years until deposed in 1747.
A new dynasty of rulers, the Qajars, established themselves at the end
of the 18th century. By this time, Persian territory, which included parts
of modern Georgia, Armenia and Afghanistan, was coming under threat from
Russia, then in one of its expansionist periods, and Britain, which sought
to consolidate its already substantial position in south Asia.
The two imperial powers occupied Persia during World War I, after which
a senior army officer, Colonel Reza Khan, launched a successful military
coup and – with the blessing of the British and Russians –
took control of the country in 1921. In 1925, Reza Khan was proclaimed
Shah, bringing an end to the Qajar Dynasty. Reza Khan himself was forced
to abdicate in favour of his son (Reza Pahlavi) in 1941. The British and
Russians again took effective control of the country for the duration
of World War II, before withdrawing in 1946. It took until the early 1960s
for the new Shah to establish effective control over the country, promising
prosperity through industrialisation and modernisation. The discovery
of large oil deposits provided the financial resources to put this into
effect.
The regime developed close relations with the West, especially the USA,
which saw Iran as a bulwark against communism and militant Arab nationalism.
However, in pursuing this political agenda, the Shah ignored the traditional
influence exerted by the Islamic clergy, and this was the ultimate cause
of his downfall. The destabilising effects of rapid change on traditional
Iranian society, coupled with the Shah’s intolerance of opposition,
produced increasing political tension in the country. By the late 1970s
the growing discontent had found a focus in the fundamentalist preachings
of the exiled religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini. Faced with massive
opposition from both Islamic fundamentalists and secular liberals, as
well as uncertainty within the ranks of the previously loyal army, by
January 1979 the Shah’s position was untenable and he fled the country.
Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran in triumph, and in doing so he effectively
ensured that the Islamic clergy would prevail over secular elements in
establishing the new order in Iran. Over the next two years, secular opponents
of the Shah were steadily displaced as the Islamic clergy asserted total
political control. The global resurgence of Islam since then owes much
to the Iranian revolution: Muslims throughout Asia and North Africa were
inspired by the example of Iran and most countries with a significant
Muslim population have experienced some political turbulence, in many
cases affecting significant change as a result. The reaction in the West
was almost uniformly hostile, and focused on the occupation of the US
embassy in Tehran in 1979 as a cause célèbre.
By September 1980, the new government in Tehran had a far more serious
situation to deal with when Iraq, which was looking to exploit post-revolutionary
instabilities to pursue territorial and other claims against its ancient
foe, launched a full-scale invasion. The eight years of fighting which
followed, often resembling the worst excesses of the trench warfare of
World War I, came to a close in August 1988, with next to nothing gained
by either side and with the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives on
both. While Iran turned inwards after the war, its former adversary decided
to take on the rest of the world in the ill-fated invasion of Kuwait.
Iran was largely a spectator to the conflict, although it did gain diplomatically
from Iraq’s subsequent defeat. It also gained another surge of refugees
fleeing Saddam’s post-war vengeance.
Added to the existing Afghan, Kurdish and Iraqi refugees, this left Iran
host to one of the world’s single largest population of refugees.
On the domestic front, the late 1980s saw the rise to power of the Majlis
(parliament) speaker, Hojat-al-Islam Ali Akbar Hasemi Rafsanjani. While
Khomeini was alive, effective political power was concentrated in his
hands. Upon his death in 1989, it was divided between two key posts: the
‘supreme religious leader’ and the elected president of the
republic. Conflicts between these two centres of power have dominated
Iranian politics ever since Khomeini’s death. In 1989, Rafsanjani
assumed the presidency while a close ally of Khomeini’s, Ayatollah
Khamene’i, replaced his former mentor.
Rafsanjani was re-elected in 1993 against nominal opposition. When Rafsanjani
finally stood down in 1997, a number of candidates (approved by the Council
of Guardians, the religious body headed by Khamene’i) were authorised.
Among these, and unknown at the time, was Sayed Muhammad Khatami, who
by virtue of exhaustive campaigning and an appeal to the liberal parts
of Iranian society, won a substantial majority. Khatami pledged, and has
tried to put into effect, reforms easing the more severe aspects of Islamic
doctrine, particularly as it has affected social mores, the media and
aspects of economic development. His arguments rest on the clear failings
of the immediate post-Khomeini era. He also enjoys the overwhelming support
of the population. Standing for a second term in June 2001, he secured
78 per cent of the popular vote. But he has repeatedly come into conflict
with the conservative clergy and their supporters in key parts of the
state bureaucracy, especially the police, security services and the judiciary.
The conservatives can also broadly rely on the Council of Guardians, which
Khatami can do little to challenge directly, to block reforms. Crackdowns
on prominent reformers and the media are a regular occurrence. Abroad,
the conservatives are deeply suspicious of his efforts to improve links
with the West. These have had some success, notably in Europe where all
the major states, now including the UK, have re-established full diplomatic
and trade links with Tehran. The US, however, has set itself in firm opposition
to Iran, denouncing it in 2002 as part of a so-called ‘axis of evil’:
short of a complete change of regime, it seems that there is nothing the
Iranians can do to mollify the enmity of the US. In particular, the Americans
are highly suspicious of Iranian influence over the new government in
Afghanistan, with which Iran enjoys historical and ethnic links.
Government: Legislative power is vested in the Islamic
Consultative Assembly (Majlis), with 270 members. The chief executive
is the President, elected (as is the Assembly) by universal adult suffrage
for a four-year term. A 12-member Council of Guardians, led by the country’s
supreme religious leader, Ayatollah Khamene’i, officially ensures
that legislation is in accordance with the constitution and Islamic precepts
but, in reality, enjoys extensive powers and influence over all aspects
of policy. Iran is divided into 26 provinces; each has an appointed governor.
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